Study Guide for Midterm 1

TIPS:

  1. Use your lecture notes to focus your reading of the text.
    2. Use the information provided on the website for background. Pay particular attention to the components Dr. Timiras specifically mentioned: the male and female reproductive systems, infertility, the LH and FSH page, fetal circulation
  2. Learn the information provided on the handouts:
    1. placental hormone production: do not memorize all the hormones, but understand the interaction between placenta, mother, and fetal unit
    2. derivation of the adult neural structures: know this chart! (Don't worry about the rat stuff.)
    3. fetal circulation: know the details

STUDY QUESTIONS:

Lecture 8/27

  1. What is meant by the term "critical period"? Name two critical periods during development.
  2. What is the relationship between speed of growth and cellular differentiation? (Do we grow slower as we differentiate further, or do we grow slower?)
  3. What is plasticity?

Lecture 8/29

  1. What are the 3 tiers of the male reproductive system?
  2. What is meant by the fact that the male reproductive system is regulated tonically?
  3. Know the route by which sperm get from inside the seminiferous tubules to the outside.
  4. What do Leydig cells produce? During what phases of development do they produce it? Where are they located? What stimulates them?
  5. Where are the Sertoli cells? Name 6 functions of Sertoli cells.
  6. What role does they hypothalamus play in the regulation of the male reproductive system?
  7. What components of the brain regulate sexual behavior?
  8. What are three functions of androgens?
  9. Which hormones maintain spermatogenesis?
  10. What is the difference between spermatogenesis and spermiogensis?
  11. How late into life does sperm production continue?

Lecture 8/31

  1. What are the organs of the female reproductive system?
  2. Name 3 functions of the ovary.
  3. What is the function of GnRH (LHRH) in the female?
  4. What are inhibins and activins? --> not terribly clear in lecture --> simply, they are local hormonal factors that act in an autocrine fashion to regulate the reproductive systems of males and females
  5. From what are steroids derived? Where are they produced? Do the testis produce estrogens?
  6. What is meant by the fact that the female reproductive system is cyclic?
  7. Know the maturational process of oocytes and which hormones have the greatest effects at which points in the cycle.
  8. At what phase in the ovarian cycle does estrogen exert negative feedback on the anterior pituitary? Positive feedback?
  9. What stage is the oocyte in when ovulation occurs?
  10. When does the oocyte complete meiosis?
  11. How does the ovulated ovum get into the oviduct?
  12. What is the significance of the LH surge?
  13. What does the corpus luteum do? What happens to it if fertilization occurs? If fertilization does not occur?
  14. What effect to estrogens have on the endometrium? How about progesterone?
  15. Name 3 major actions of estrogens.
  16. Name 4 major actions of progesterone.

Lecture 9/5

  1. Name 4 jobs the sperm must perform during fertilization.
  2. What are the main features of sperm maturation? How are the cellular components rearranged?
  3. Name 2 functions of the acrosomal vesicle.
  4. How does the sperm flagellum move? What enzyme is essential for its movement?
  5. What components of the follicle accompany the ovum at ovulation?
  6. What stage is the ovum in at ovulation?
  7. How do the ovum and the sperm differ?
  8. Where does fertilization take place (usually)?
  9. How do the sperms get up to the oviduct? Using their own power? Name two components of the female system that help them along.
  10. Why is sperm capacitation essential for fertilization? Where does it occur?
  11. When does the acrosome reaction take place? What main enzyme is released from the acrosome so that sperm can pass through the corona radiata?
  12. What is the zona reaction? When does it occur?
  13. At what point is the diploid number of chromosomes regained?
  14. What is the window of time after ovulation in which fertilization must take place?
  15. Name 4 results of fertilization.
  16. What occurs that produces identical twins? Fraternal twins? Name one anomaly that almost always results in spontaneous abortion.
  17. What is the significance of the SRY gene? How is it that men could be XX?

Lecture 9/7

  1. What are the challenges to the new zygote?
  2. Where in the uterus does implantation occur?
  3. What 2 hormones have prepped the uterus for implantation? Name 2 ways in which the endometrium has been prepared.
  4. What is a morula? What is a blastula?
  5. What will become of the outer cell layer of the blastula?
  6. What is the significance of HCG? What effect does it have on the corpus luteum? Where is it produced?
  7. What occurs during gastrulation? What layers are produced? Approximately when does gastrulation occur?
  8. See Table 5-1 p. 63-64; Do not memorize, but know in general.
  9. Within how many days must implantation occur?
  10. How is it that during implantation and pregnancy, the uterine wall is not contracting when estrogen is around in abundance?
  11. Where in the pathway of fertilization/implantation do oral contraceptives work? Tubal ligation? Intrauterine devices? Morning after pill (RU-486)? Spermicides? Vasectomy? Barrier methods?

Lecture 9/10

  1. Why is there a high amount of egg and embryonal waste in infertility treatments?
  2. From what are the chorionic villi formed? Where do the chorionic villi sit? What is their function?
  3. Does fetal blood and maternal blood mix? What is the hemochorionic membrane?
  4. At what month does the placenta reach its largest size?
  5. Name five functions of the placenta.
  6. Know from what germ layers tissues are derived (p. 68-69 in text).
  7. Do pluripotent cells persist throughout life?

Lecture 9/12

  1. What is a maternal uterine sinus? What is a chorionic villus? What is a cotyledon?
  2. What maternal vessels feed into/out of the placental sinuses?
  3. What are the deciduas? Why are they called that? Which part is between the uterine wall and the new embryo, forming the maternal part of the placenta?
  4. What fetal vessels feed into and out of the chorionic villi?
  5. How does the fetus pull oxygen out of the maternal blood? How might the spiral arteries contribute to the "freshening" of blood within the maternal sinuses?
  6. Where might a woman have lived during her pregnancy if the placenta of her fetus is twice the typical size?
  7. How long does the placenta secrete HCG? Why does it stop at that point?
  8. Is the placenta a complete barrier? Name a few substances that can cross.

Lecture 9/14

  1. What are the components of the cardiovascular system?
  2. Be able to explain the 3 shunt systems in fetal circulation: the ductus venosus, ductus arteriosus, and foramen ovale. Why are these shunts in operation in the fetus? What is the purpose of them? Why are they no longer needed after birth?
  3. What organ is of primary concern for the fetus to supply with the most highly oxygenated blood? Why isn't the brain the most important organ? (see also, lecture notes from 9/21)

Lecture 9/19

  1. What is the function of the yolk sac? When does it regress?
  2. What is the function of the allantois? When does it transform itself? What does it become or contribute to?
  3. Name 4 functions of the amnionic sac.
  4. What is amniocentesis? What are the indications for the procedure? What are the dangers of performing the procedure?
  5. What form of sampling can be done before amniocentesis is possible?

Lecture 9/21

  1. What is the major center for reflex activity?
  2. Name 8 major functions of the nervous system.
  3. Is the homeostatic load of the fetus low or high? Why?
  4. When is the nervous system no longer plastic?
  5. What embryonic structure eventually forms the spinal cord and brain ventricles?
  6. Know the chart on the embryonal development of the nervous system!!
  7. What do the neural crest cells become?
  8. What four final cell forms all arise from neural epithelial cells?
  9. What are the 6 functional units of the brain?
  10. Know some of the fetal reflexes on table 9-4 in the text.
  11. Do male and female fetuses have the same responses to sounds?
  12. Is the ability to recognize the human face gained before or after birth?

Lecture 9/24

  1. Does the fetus think? When does it begin thinking? What connection occurs at that time?
  2. Is the neonatal brain a blank slate?
  3. What are innate traits?
  4. Does the zygote exist forms of planning? Give one example.
  5. What are the components of the neuronal microenvironment?
  6. What cell types make up the neuroglia? The microglia?
  7. Is the process of myelination complete at birth? If no, when is it complete?
  8. What are two functions of astrocytes?
  9. What is the major source of energy in the adult brain?
  10. Does the fetus mainly rely on aerobic or anaerobic respiration for energy? What are the products of that respiration? Where does the substrate for respiration come from in the fetus?
  11. What major changes occur from the time of birth until 10 days with respect to oxygen use in the brain, oxygen breakdown, and resistance to states of low oxygen (hypoxia)?
  12. Why is it important for the fetus to have a high resistance to periods of hypoxia?
  13. Name 5 general biochemical changes that are occurring during prenatal CNS development.
  14. What is the most important hormone from growth and development of the nervous system in the prenatal and neonatal period? What condition results if this hormone is lacking?

Lecture 9/26

  1. Which gamete determines the sex of the new embryo?
  2. At what week of gestation do the gonads begin to differentiate?
  3. What gene on the Y choromosome (normally) encourages the differentiation of the primordial gonad into a testicle?
  4. After the testis are differentiated, what two hormones do they begin producing? What are the effects of those hormones?
  5. Which ductal system persists in the male? Which persists in the female?
  6. What structures does the Wolffian duct give rise to?
  7. What structures does the Mullerian duct give rise to?
  8. What happens if the SRY gene is not present?
  9. Does the differentiation into female organs require estrogen?
  10. What does the presence of condensed chromosomal material within the somatic cells of an individual tell you about that personıs sex chromosome make-up?
  11. What is a person called who has XXX? Do they appear male or female?
  12. What is a person called who has XXY? Do they appear male or female?
  13. What is a person called who has XO? Do they appear male or female?
  14. What is true hemaphrodism?
  15. What is pseudohermaphrodism? What can cause it?

Lecture 9/28

  1. Do sex hormones influence the development of any structures outside the reproductive system?
  2. What example was given that described neuronal plasticity in a male adult animal?
  3. What is the difference between that organizational and regulatory influences of hormones? Give two example of organizational influence and one example of regulatory influence.
  4. What is Cretenism? How can it be corrected?
  5. What is meant by a "critical time" for the action of androgens?
  6. What actions do neonatal androgens have on the brains of males and females?
  7. Give an example of an organ that changes function with age.
  8. Is fetal growth regulated locally or generally?
  9. What is the primary energy source in the fetus? Where is it obtained? Where is it stored?
  10. What hormones (what general type) influence the storage of glucose?
  11. Why are the levels of insulin always high in fetuses? This was unclear, so Iıll just answer the question‹insulin is a growth-promoting (anabolic) hormone. Fetuses require it to be high for growth purposes. At the same time, insulin stimulates the removal of glucose from the bloodstream, keeping blood glucose low in the fetus. The allows for further transport of glucose across the hemochorionic membrane.