Study Guide for Final Exam
December 18, 2001 5-8 PM (2050 VLSB)

The final is worth 200 points: 100 points will be based on new material and the remaining 100 points will be based on previous material (material covered in Midterm 1 and Midterm 2).

STUDY QUESTIONS:

Lecture 11/09/01 and 11/12/01

1. What is the main function of the immune system?
2. What is the difference between cell-mediated and humoral immunity?
3. What tissues and organs are involved in the immune system? How are they involved?
4. Where are T cells formed originally? What are the three main types and what are their basic functions?
5. Where are B cells stored and where to they mature? What is their main function and what part of the immune response are they responsible for? Into what two types of cells do they differentiate?
6. What is the function of neurtrophils?
7. What are macrophages and what is their main function? How do macrophages stimulate other types of immune cells to respond to antigens?
8. What are natural killer cells? What is their main function and how are they stimulated to perform it?
9. What is complement?
10. Know the basic features of the five types of antibody. Which one crosses the placental barrier? Which is the most abundant in adults? Which ones can trigger complement-mediated lysis? Which one is found in a pentamer? Which one is found in the respiratory tract, tears, intestine, and stomach? Which one provides postnatal intestinal protection and from where is it derived? Which one is the receptor on B cells? Which one is involved in allergic responses and response to parasitic infections?
11. Which region of an antibody binds to the antigen?
12. Which antibody appears first in the blood of a newborn? Which ones follow within the first year of life?
13. Know the tissues T cells migrate to from birth to 16 weeks.
14. When do B cells first appear in the liver and when do they finish differentiation?
15. When do natural killer cells appear in fetal marrow? Are they are competent as they are in an adult? When do they achieve greater functionality?
16. Where are complement proteins made? When are they first detectable in an infant¹s blood?
17. Why are over 90% of new T cells killed by the body?

Lecture 11/16/01

1. What level of the hypothalamo-pituatary-gonadal axis do we know triggers the onset of puberty‹the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland or the gonad? What structure/system outside this axis is also involved and is required to provide the stimulus to set the axis in motion?
2. What happens to the brain¹s threshold of responsiveness to sex hormone levels as puberty begins?
3. What is the significance of the fact that for many girls menarche occurs during Christmas break?

Lecture 11/19/01

1. Why is the hypothalamus called the "Gonadostat?" What happens to the hypothalamus set point for sex hormones at puberty?
2. Review the hormones of the menstrual cycle.

Lecture 11/21/01

1. You are advised to understand figures 18-7 through 18-13
2. What is the major estrogen in females? The major androgen in males?
3. What changes take place in males at puberty? (know at least 8)
4. What does graph 18-5 show? How might this graph differ in boys and girls?
5. Is there a secular trend in the age of menarche? What direction is the age of menarche going?
6. Why is it important that male testis descend into the scrotum?
7. What is the effect of menarche on blood pressure? on pulse rate and pulse pressure? on basal heat production? on basal respiratory volume? (see figure 18-6)

Lecture 11/26/01

1. What are the major components of muscle?
2. From what embryologic layer are muscles derived?
3. Which kinds of muscles are under autonomic control? Which are under voluntary control?
4. What kind of neuron innervates muscle and causes it to contract?
5. What specialized oxygen-carrying molecule is found in muscle?
6. What are the main proteins of the myofibril unit?
7. Know the characteristics of the two main muscle fiber types.
8. What is myoplasticity?
9. From what molecule does muscle obtain ATP for contraction? Under what conditions might lactate be produced? Under what conditions is the TCA cycle used to produce ATP?
10. By what age is the growth of muscle basically complete? How does muscle change thereafter? Do we make new muscle cells? If not, then how do our muscles become bigger with use?
11. What kinds of exercise lead to an increase in cross-sectional area of muscle fibers? What kinds of exercise increase the level of oxidative metabolism?
12. What is the consequence of excessive training, extreme stress, and poor diet on the menstrual cycle? Why is this a problem‹why would we not consider it a positive side effect of strain?

1. What are the stimulators of appetite?
2. What the depressors of appetite?
3. What is the sense of satiety? What are its inducers?
4. Why does it make sense for high insulin levels to stimulate hunger?
5. What kind of cell secretes leptin? Why does it make sense for this cell type to secrete a depressor of hunger?
6. What is the basal requirement of nutrients for an very active adolescent or adult?
7. How many Kcal are there in 1 gm of fat? in 1 gm of protein? in 1 gm of carbohydrate?
8. What features of our intestinal tract point towards our being omnivores?
9. Why is it that water is so important?
10. What form must carbohydrates be in to be absorbed through the intestinal wall?
11. What is the minimum safe percentage of protein in an adult diet? Why is it dangerous to take in less?
12. What two vitamin levels should be checked with frequency in a vegan diet to ensure adequate intake?
13. What kinds of fat are best for us to take in? What is one solid fat that is good for us?
14. At approximately what age do we see boys overtake girls in their RDA of calories?
15. What are the micronutrients?
16. Why do we need fiber in our diets?
17. Has caffeine been shown to be bad for the average person?

1. What hormone is made in XY individuals that leads to the elimination of female reproductive precursors?
2. What is Onuf¹s nucleus? What is its function in boys? What is its function in girls?
3. The release of what hormone leads to the development of the scrotum, prostate, and penis in males?
4. What structures are formed due to the presence of testosterone in males?
5. What structures are formed in females due to the absence of Mullerian Inhibitory Hormone?
6. The absence of what hormone leads to the elimination of male internal reproductive precursors in the female?
7. What is the fundamental difference b/w the regulation of sex hormone production in females and males at the level of the hypothalamus?
8. Know the levels of estrogen throughout the female life cycle. Know the levels of testosterone throughout the male life cycle.
9. At what stage of life is it thought that sexual orientation is determined?
10. Are male and female children essentially identical neurologically, just waiting for the onset of puberty to differentiate them?
11. Why do researchers think it is appropriate to discuss our nature as men and women based on the behavior of our ancestors? --what is true about our DNA that makes this reasonable?
12. Why is it significant that gestating mothers are exposed to so much stress in modern life? What does this mean for the fetus?

Lecture 12/3/01

1. What is the relationship between high maternal stress during gestation and the subsequent weight of the newborn?
2. What does the term "homestasis" mean?
3. What does the term "allostasis" mean?
4. What is the General Adaptation Syndrome? How might the ideas of the adaptation syndrome be applied to developmental periods?
5. What is the relationship between stress and peptic ulcer disease? What is the underlying mechanism of that relationship?

Lecture 12/5/01

1. What types of physical stress affect cortisol secretion? What types of psychological stress?
2. Know the features of the fight/flight response. What might happen if a person with the inability to secrete cortisol was faced with an extreme physical stressor? ­this last one is not in your notes, so think about it
3. Why do we get sick when we are stressed?
4. What is the difference between a specific and a nonspecific response to stress? Give an example of each.
5. What bodily functions are inhibited by stress? Stimulated?
6. What happens to the immune system during prolonged stress?